Proto-Drydo-Udraþ

Notes:: an = indicates a compound boundary

a – signifies a stem vowel separate form the root and the case ending

Sounds:

i ĭ y ў *u *ŭ

*ī *yˉ *ū

*« *«r

*ē *e *o *ō

*ĕ *ŏ

*æ *æ˘

*ă *ā

	Labio-Velar	Bilabial	Labio-Dental	Dental	Alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Glottal
Plosive	*k^w*	*p b*	*- -*	*ŧ¹ đ¹*	*t d*	*tj² dj²*	*k g*	*q -*	?
Spirant	-	-*³ β*	*f v*	*þ¹ ð¹*	*s⁴ z⁴*	ç	x Ä	*- -*	*h -*
Lateral	-	*- -*	*- -*	*- l*	*- l*
Rhotic	*- -*	*- -*	*- -*	*- -*	*- r*
Nasal	-	*m m*	*- -*	*- n*	*- n*	*- -*	*- ŋ*
Glide	w	-	*- -*	-	-	j

Note #1:

*ŧ > *þ

*đ > *ð

These changes initally occurred only intervocalicaly, but later all dental plosives spirantised.

Note #2:

*tj > *c

*dj > *ï

These sounds originally represented palatalised alveolar plosives, which, after going through affricates *č *ĵ, acquired the force of full palatals. In Drydic the palatals became fronted velar stops, which have various actual pronounciations in the Drydic dialects.

Note #3:

The voiceless bilabial fricative [¸] has been acquired by Drydic, Udraþ, Lan, and Eastern Drydic by assimmilation from both *f and *β.

Note #4:

*sj > *š

*zj > *ž

The Alveolars s & z were palatalised before a front glide *j.

There also existed a rhotacised sound *z^R, which turned into a fricative trill *ř, which in turn became a trill *r (in some dialects), except in Eastern Drydic and Highland Udraþ, where the fricative trill derhotacised to a spirant z.

*V₁V₂ > **V₂, unless *VVÛ.

e.g., *ĉīÛgåo- > Drydic čīÛgŏan, die.

::Nominal Declensions::

a-stems

sg pl

Nom. -a-s -a-j

Gen. -oi -a-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -un* -ō-s (by analogy with the 2^nd declension)

*The *-un is somewhat problematic, as Salor shows a -m in the Accuasative singular of a-stems; consulting Arēsæd just begs the issue, as its Accusative singular is –(z)εn, but there final *m and *n collapsed into –n.

o-stems

sg pl

Nom. -o-s -a-Z (a fully consonantal version of j, later changing to z)

Gen. -æ˘k -o-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -e-m -ō-s

u.o-stems (a mixture of o-stems and ū-stems; this mixture is equivilent to the -au- stems of Salor)

sg pl

Nom. -uo-s -ijaz^R

Gen. -æ˘k ū-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -uo-e-m -ijaz^R

i-stems

sg pl

Nom. -s -īj¹

Gen. -i-o -i-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -i-m -īj¹

e-stems

sg pl

Nom. -s -ēj[1]

Gen. -e-o -e-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -i-m -ēj¹

n-stems

sg pl

Nom. -ns -eins

Gen. -on -en-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -en -ein

m-stems

sg pl

Nom. -m -em-s

Gen. -om -em-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -mem -em

r/z^R-stems

sg pl

Nom. -r/z^R -z^Rēz^R

Gen. -or/z^R -ir/z^Ru

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -æ˘r/z^R -r/z^Rē

l-stems

sg pl

Nom. -s -īl-s

Gen. -iol -el-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -æ˘-n«s

Acc. -i-l -īl

ū-stems

sg pl

Nom. -u-s -ū-s

Gen. -ūo -ū-lu

Dat.-Loc. -a-ī -u-n«s

Acc. -o-m -ū-s

Adjectives

Declension 1

Sg Pl

f m n f m n

Nominative -as -os -uos -ai -aZ -ijaz^R

Genitive -oi -æ˘k - -alū -olū -

Dative-Locative -ai - - -æ˘-n«s- -

Accusative -un -æ˘m -uom -ōs -ōs -ijaz^R

Declension 2

Sg Pl

f m n f m n

Nomimative -s - -en -aj -ūs -ijāz^R

Genitive -iol - - -lū - -

Dative -ai - - - æ˘-n«s- -

Accusative -un -ēm -uom -ōs -ōs -ijāz^R

Comparitives

-īnna- plus the following endings:

Sg Pl

f m n f m n

Nomimative -s - -en -aj -ūs -ijāz^R

Genitive[2] -io/-eo - - -lū - -

Dative -ai - - -æ˘-n«s- -

Accusative -un -ēm -uom -ōs -ōs -ijāz^R

Superlatives

-irræ˘l- plus the following endings:

Sg Pl

f m n f m n

Nominative -as -os -uos -ai -aZ -ijaz^R

Genitive -oi -æ˘k - -alū -olū -

Dative-Locative -ai - - -æ˘-n«s- -

Accusative -un -æ˘m -uom -ōs -ēs -ijaz^R

Pronouns

1st Person

Sg. (*mō-) Pl. (*nō-)

Nominative ūla nō-s

Genitive mon nō-lu

Ablative mål nō-ål

Dative mū nō-ū/nō-nus (the later Locative form)

Accusative ūlēm nō-ēs

2nd Person

Sg. (*sō-) Pl. (*kō-)

Nominative sa kō-s

Genitive son kō-lu

Ablative sål kō-ål

Dative sū kō-ū/kō-nus (the later Locative form)

Accusative sū-lēm kō-ēs

3rd Person (stem *tō~ā-)

Sg. Pl.

f m n f m n

Nominative ta tæ˘ to tai tuī tuz^Ra

Genitive toi tai - tālu tōlu -

Ablative tō-ål - - tō-ål/ tō-ūz^Ros

Dative tō-ū - - tō[3]-æ˘ns- -

Accusative tun tēm to tō-ēs - tuz^Ra

Verbal conjugation

Levels of evidentiality:

1. -tī- seen by the speaker

2. -æ˘l- seen by someone else

3. -sī- not seen, but probable (in opposition with the optative mood, which it cannot occur with.)

Moods:

1. -e- indicative

2. -ā- subjunctive

3. -i- optative (in opposition with the 3rd level of evidentiality, which it cannot occur with.)

Tenses:

1. -ek- Future Simple (Drydic Future Imperfective)

2. -ekelī- Future Perfect (note: the construction of as + the Future is also very common in Udraþ, Eastern Drydic, Highland Udraþ, and even Lan, but not Western Drydic)

3. -b(e/a/i)- Imperfect, Imperfective Past Simple

4. -elī- Present Perfect (Perfective); Drydic Perfect (Preterit)

5. -elīb(e/a/i)- Pluperfect (note: the construction of as + the Aorist or the Present Perfect is also very common in Udraþ, Eastern Drydic, Highland Udraþ, and even Lan, but not Western Drydic)

6. elas- Aorist (also formed with reduplication, with vowel height raised one step); only surviving as an Aorist in Udraþ, Eastern Drydic, and Highland Udraþ; merged with Pluperfect in Western Drydic, and took over the functions of the Pluperfect in Lan.)

from the Aor. affix in *–el- plus the temporal conjunction *as.

Uses:

Tense/Aspect system

Present Past Future

Imperfective Present Imperfect Future

Aoristic (none) Aorist Future

Perfective Present Perfect Pluperfect Future Perfect

Narrative system:

Aorist

| | |

Plu. Perf. Imperf. Pres Future Future Perfect

| | | | | |

Personal Endings:

	Active			Middle			Passive
	sg	du	pl	sg	du	pl	sg	du	pl
1st	-Vm?	-Vsu	-Vmūl	-Vmai	-Vswai	-Vmēn	-Vmaz^R?	-Vswaz^R	-Vmuz^R
2nd	-Vs?	-Vtēl	-Vtªs	-Vsai	-Vtlai	-Vtsai	-Vsaz^R?	-Vtelo(z^R)	-Vk^wez^R
3rd	-Vt?	-Vmk^w	-Vntæ˘	-Vtai	-Vmk^wuz^Rai	-Vntai	-Vtaz^R?	-Vmk^wuz^R	-Vntūz^R

If you will notice, the Middle endings are, for the most part, derived from the Active by the addition of –ai; the <ª> stands for a vowel that elides when there is a vowel in the next syllable; the exceptions to the derivitation of the Middle are *-Vmēn and *-Vmk^wuz^Rai, of which the former is completely different, and the latter is derived from the Passive by the addition of –ai.

Active

1^st-Vi

2^nd-Vo

3^rd-Vm

The above endings are used by Drydic as the only Active singular forms. They occur in Lan as the intransitive singular endings, along with another set for dual and plural.

Infinitives:

Present:

Active: -?(the Dative case provides the active infinitive; Drydic and Lan take the Plural –Vn(s), Udraþ, Eastern Drydic and Highland Udraþ take the singular -ai)

Middle: -ein (Drydic and Lan do not have a middle, so this is sooner a

Proto-Udraþ form)

Passive: -ēm, -Vm (for the Drydic –am, -em)

Aorist:

Active: elas-/stem/-?

Middle: elas-/stem/-ein

Passive: elas-/stem/-ēm, -Vm[4]

(Plu)perfect:

Active: -əlī

Middle:-elī-ein

Passive:-elī-ēm, -Vm

Future:

Active: -ek-?

Middle: -ek-ein

Passive: -ek-ēm, -Vm

The Future Perfect infinitive is formed with the Future Infinitive plus the adverb

as.

The Imperfect Infinitive, which is conciously avoided if possible, is constructed

with as + the present infinitive; it is avoided most of the time because of its

extreme ambiguity with the Present Infinitive.

Participles:

Present: /stem/ + -as, -os, -uos.

(Plu)Perfect: /perf. stem/ + -þez^Ras, -þez^Roš, -þez^Ruos.

Aorist: /aor. stem/ + -(e)lis, -(e)lis, -(e)len (3rd [i-stem] decl.)

Verbal affixes:

1.keī- negating prefix; in Drydic written <kē-> [keIù]; Udraþ <keī-> [keIù]

Lexicon:

*aadĕk-aj: the Aadeks

*ais-: to go

*agein-o-s: lamb

*alt-os-a-s: 'stream-augm.', river

*beh{æ(~ē}ker-:love/life; is a noun-verb stem

*ber-a-s, -o-s, -uo-s:white

*burz^Riđ- to cut

*de-gălăst-: attack (give fighting)

*dēŭĭd-i-z=dom-a-s: temple

*dēŭĭd-z: god

*dŏtj-:to be

*-ga/-ssē instrumental postpositions, interchangable.

*gaz^Rik-:to sleep

|*kreŭÛhor-r/z^R: raw flesh (alternate declension; went to r-stems in S(W)D and SU; many dialects have o-stems)

|*kreŭÛh- : eat messily

|*kruhí- : gorge All of these roots point to an old root *kreŭh-

|*kruhíβ-a-s, -o-s, -uo-s : bloody

|*kruhīastor-r/z^R: Megalania

*pām-o-s: stream; that which is used for navigation

*-Vd: singular Ablative postposition for nouns

*-ūz^Ros: plural Ablative postposition for nouns

*tsjīgåo- kill(tr.)

*xep- home, patria

*ap at/near (Loc. postp., used in place from constructions)

*ŋŏi- round

*đrū- big

*đūr- large

*kīs- small

*βĕr- blue

*latj- green

*vai-(adv) therefore

*wē-through (postp. + Loc.)

*dur-strong

*dur, …- after all, …; for …

*duran·a-s, -o-s, -uo-s-large

*ĵyç-a-s, -o-s, -uo-s-young

*ĵáva- when

*ĵávax- whenever

*ĵvẽ, ĵvẽk, f,- what?

*ĵvēx, ĵvēkex, f,- whatever

*ĵvĩ-where? (Locative used as an adverb)

*ĵvĩx-wherever?

*ĵvõdda-how? (Ablative-Instrumental case structure used as an adverb)

*ĵvõddax-however?

*ĵvũ- how much? (pronominal Dative used as an adverb)

*ĵvũx- however much?

*ĵvõgá- why? (pronominal Instrumental used as an adverb)

*ĵvõgáx- whyever?

*ēbom--drip, flow out (when drip, it is a verb, when flow out, it is a adposition with the locative of movement)

*-ĕn- postp. in, on with acc.

*-ēn-postp. into with dat.

*erm-a-s, erm-o-s, erm-uo-s-fierce, furious, mad

*es-- eat

*ēvase-- echo

*faĵv·a-s, -o-s, -uo-s- any, anyone

*faĵáva- anytime

*faĵvē, faĵvēk, f,- anything

*faĵvĩ-anywhere? (Locative used as an adverb)

*faĵvõdda-by any means (Ablative-Instrumental case structure used as an adverb)

*faĵvõgá- any reason? (pronominal Instrumental used as an adverb)

*faralt-uo-s, -æ(k, m.-trading post

*far--to live (at/on/in a place)

*fessalest-a-s, -oi, f.-nature

*fŏra--to cover (item being covered is in the Ablative with the postposition –ïa; item covering is in the Locative)

*geŋik-a-s, -oi, f.-unit; kešaror geŋikas, lit. 'the hand's unit', story, plans

*geriana--buy (w/ Dat.) {Present Participle Genitive in -eo}

*gatsjal--to take

*īkul!-(in1terj) you are going to die, BITCH!!!

*īkur!-(interj) you little SHIT!!!

*ĭfel-a-s, -oi, m.-friend(ly)

*h^walan-a-s, -oi, f.-the animal that the Wargs prey on the most often

*kata-to get, manage (as barely get), with šan čan, 'to manage to get' (takes an -ī- for the optative)

*kẽr-a-s, -oi, f.- nothing

*kérãs-never

*kergá-no reason

*kétas-sometime

*ketgá-some reason

*kłail--to do; to manage (as in sense of 'to do') [slightly different meaning that akun-]

*koi-if (can take the Conditional or the [regular] Optative [with which it notes a result clause; this is the sole item that consistantly distinguishes the conditional Optative from the normal Optative]).

*kr·a-s, -o-s, -uo-s- no one

*krī-nowhere

*krōdda!-no way!

*krū-none

*k9aïni--to smell

*jan-lately, … (used also as an adverb of degree of happening, where it indicates 'barely')

*xeĵv·a-s, -o-s, -uo-s- everyone

*xeĵvẽ, xeĵvẽk f.- everything

*lakuer-o-s, -æ(k, m.-lake, pool

*l- he himself

*lir-but

*-nā (clitic)-coupola; PDU only, no trace in Kerinidoi, Salor, or Arēsæd8.

*ŋŏi-a-s, -o-s, -uo-s- round

*-os--full of, augmented

*okul(-en)-a-s, -oi, f.-girl

*orála-at that time, then

*orára- at this time, now

*orelī-there

*orelōdda-(in) that way (Ablative-Instrumental case structure used as adverb)

*orelogá-by that way

*orelū-that much

*orẽ·r-this thing?

*orī-here

*orōdda-thus

*orogá- by this reason

*orū-this much

*oÄ-a-s, f.- land; oγ-a-s pam-æ(k, valley

*ozjn-a-s,m.-story

*pam-o-s, -æ(k, m.-river {from PDK *pam-o-s}

*raian-a-s, -oi, f.- cry (arag-ō-lu raian-a-s, the howl of the wolves)

*rēb-to have ____ done (the action is in the Gerund)

*rēk-a-s, -o-s, -u-o-s-little

*samer-a-s, f.-Sameria, homeland of the Aadek

*satē-powerfully

*sõn- (adv) so that (+ subj.); in order to (+opt.)

*sor--leave; with the causative, capture {Present Participle Genitive in -eo}

*sjor-r, f.-passage

*sjai-then (adv.); like (+adj., suffixes to adective)

*sjan-how; sjan sjan, reduplicates the meaning of the following verb

*seuŋ-o-s, -æ(k, m.-a feudal march (as in a march of land); same as German mark

*sjoun-z^R, n.-business deal

*tō~ā- he~she~it~they

*teran-uo-s, -æ(k, n.-care (as in cares of the world)

*kt·a-s, -o-s, -uo-s- some

*ktī-someplace

*ktōdda-somehow (Ablative-Instrumental case structure used as adverb)

*tsjeigu- die

*tsjor-r, n.-wood; also verbal stem

i ¹ This form is pure conjecture, as the i-stem Nominative/Accusative plural used in Drydic, Udraþ, Lan, and Standard Eastern Drydic is the ū-stem plural (with a few 'irregulars' in -īj): however, they are based on good data, as the Highland Udraþ dialects, in a rare departure from Standard Eastern Drydic forms, have all plural Nominatives and Accusatives (except the r-stems) in –Vj, with the stem vowel in the Nominative, and -æj in the Accusative. These forms are also present, to some degree, in nonstandard northwestern varieties of E

astern Drydic, chiefly those that share the lack of a /b/~/β/, /d/~/z/, and /g/~/γ/ di

stinction.

[3] the Genitive forms for the Superaltive are, F: -io/-eo; M: -ijæ˘k/-io

Gen. -i-o -i-lu

Gen. -e-o -e-lu

Gen. -on -en-lu

Gen. -om -em-lu

Gen. -or/zR -ir/zRu

Gen. -iol -el-lu

Gen. -ūo -ū-lu

Acc. -o-m -ū-s

Active

Middle

Passive

sg

du

pl

sg

du

pl

sg

du

pl

1st

-Vm?

-Vsu

-Vmūl

-Vmai

-Vswai

-Vmēn

-VmazR?

-VswazR

-VmuzR

2nd

-Vs?

-Vtēl

-Vtªs

-Vsai

-Vtlai

-Vtsai

-VsazR?

-Vtelo(zR)

-VkwezR

3rd

-Vt?

-Vmkw

-Vntæ˘

-Vtai

-VmkwuzRai

-Vntai

-VtazR?

-VmkwuzR

-VntūzR

*lir-but

Gen. -or/z^R -ir/z^Ru

-Vmaz^R?

-Vswaz^R

-Vmuz^R

-Vsaz^R?

-Vtelo(z^R)

-Vk^wez^R

-Vmk^w

-Vmk^wuz^Rai

-Vtaz^R?

-Vmk^wuz^R

-Vntūz^R