Salanja:

A semi-satisfactory grammar

Sounds

Bilabial Lab-Dent Dental alveolar pal-alv palatal velar uvular glottal

Stop/Affricate p b - - - - t d č ĵ - - k g q g[1] /

[Stop aspirated p^h b^h - - - - t^h d^h - - - - k^h g^h q^h g^h 1 - ]

Nasal m - - - n - - - њ - ŋ - -

Fricative φ β f v θ ð s z š ž - x - - h

Lateral - - - l

Trill [b][2] - r

Vowels:

Schwa is symbolized by e.

Semivowels:

j w

Morphology

Case	Full Form	Clitic Form[3]
Nominative	-Ø
Genitive	-ha[4]/-xa	-x
Accusative	-za	-z
Dative	-ma	-m
Partitive	-θa	-θ
Translative	-au	-aw
Inessive	-ran	-r«n
Elative	-los	-los
Illative	-as	(lacking)
Adessive	-uś	(lacking)
Essive	-kaṣau	(lacking)
Ablative	-ōd	-ōd
Allative	-њa	-њ
Abessive	-adź	-«dź
Comitiative	-atl	-«tl
Prolative	-san	(lacking)
Exessive	-θau	(lacking)
Compositive	-vo	(lacking)
Locative	-k^we	-k^we
Adverbial	-r	-r
Instrumental	-santl	-s«ntl

Case usage is as follows:

Case	Meaning	Addenda
Nominative	Subject	N/a
Genitive	possession by objects that cannot use the personal affixes (these are very rare); with Partitive, Partitive Genitive; denotes X in 'X composing Y'	N/a
Accusative	Direct Object	N/a
Dative	Indirect Object; taken by verbs of giving, showing, helping, telling, and narrating.	N/a
Partitive	Partial Object; equivilant of Eng. 'some'; sometimes is the subject form in certain clauses	Required by choosing verbs, and some verbs of motion.
Translative	Result of a transition; or translation	N/a
Inessive	Within, in close contact with	N/a
Elative	Movement from within	N/a
Illative	Movement into	N/a
Essive	As	N/a
Ablative	Movement from	N/a
Allative	Movement to	N/a
Abessive	Without (not having)	N/a
Comitiative	With (having)	N/a
Prolative	Through	N/a
Exessive	An amount of	A bit vague
Constructive	Construct form (to borrow the Semitic term)	Used in combinations, and, with the Genitive, shows composition of the previous word
Locative	At	N/a
Adverbial	Forms adverbs	Special
Instrumental	Indicates the instrument of the verb.	Prolative +Comitative

In Salanjan, any noun can have up to three affixes attached to it.

/stem/+1class+2class+3class

1 class:

Number slot:

-Vf-: dual

-Vm-: trial

-Vŋ-:paucal (a small number, greater than 3)

-Vn-: plural

2 class:

possessor slot:

-š-:1^st sg-"my"

-x-:2^nd sg-"thy"

-s-:3^rd sg-"his/hers/its"

-θ-:1^st du-"of we two"

-l-:2^nd du-"of you two"

-p-:1^st pl-"our"

-t-:2^nd pl-"your"

-q-:3^rd pl-"their"

3 class:

case endings

Verbs

The Salanja verb is a finicky thing. As with the nouns, the plural formant is optional, but the sufixes are strange, and they are what make this language and her relations unique. Also, Noun affixes can be attached to verb stems to produce different meanings or shades of meaning. Some nouns, chiefly subjects and objects, can be incorporated into the formation of the verbal suffixed form, usually occuring after the main root.

#s:

1v can have 2

2v can have 1

3v can have 1

4v can have 1

5v can have 4

6v can have 1

Affixing:

/stem/+1v+2v+j_ā^å+3v+4v+5v+6v+personal ending

Name	Suffix	Meaning\example of
Durative #1v	-ŋka	/think/+ŋka+eg^hon +/fast/=this is how fast I think; /move/+ŋka =ride
Causative #1v	-č-	produces the causative of the verb
Transitive #1v	-v-	indicates a transitive meaning; for some already transitive verbs, derives a causative
Intransitive#1v	-gr-	indicates a intransitive meaning; also others
Verbal Dynamic #2v	-allas	/fast/ + -allas =/run/
Verbal Static #2v	-enūr	/fast/ + -enūr =/be swift/
1^st person	-egon (caus. –gon)	I, we
2^nd Person	-(amas)ap[5] (causitive -amap)	Thou, you
3^rd Person	-k^has (causative -kas)	He, she, it, they
Future #3v	-eÄ(«)hhhhhh-	'will/shall'
Preterit (Aorist) #3v	-eβ(«)-	'-ed'
Present #3v	-eð(«)-	shows the present tense seperately from the aspect system
Imperfective #6v	-agail	Action is incomplete
Perfective #6v	-ail	Action is complete
Continuous imperfective #6v	-astu; -jāstu[6]	Action is still happening
Continuous perfective #6v	-ora; -stu^6	Action is done happening
Negative	agal-	Not
Intentional actional #5v	-jānabr	Shows intent to cause the action (requires the causative)
Intentional resultative #5v	-nabr	Shows intent to cause the result (requires the causative)
Benefactive actional #5v	-jāšal	The action benefits the speaker
Benefactive resultative #5v	-šal	The result benefits the speaker
Negative actional #5v	-jāžar	The action harms the speaker
Negative resultative #5v	-žar	The result harms the speaker
Antibenefatcive actional #5v	-jæþ; -jεð^6	Action benefits the listener
Antibenefactive resultative #5v	-wæð; -εð^6	Result benefits the listener
Antinegative actional #5v	-jåsun	Action harms listener
Antinegative resultative #5v	-sun	Result harms listener
Subjunctive/Conditional #4v	-mīl	may, should, would
Optative #4v	-nēl	might, infinitives in English
Imperative #4v	-њāl	Direct commands
Jussive #4v	-ŋōl	Latin Hortatory Subjunctive

Syntax

In the realm of Syntax, the Salanjan language does not rely very heavily upon word order (indeed, a great number of sentences are single words), as most of it is affixed in the word inflections. The Durative affix mostly indicates an enduring state as opposed to the unmarked static; this must be kept separate from the (im)perfective aspects. The clause <siloŋkaigoŋ kxana> siloŋkaegon kxana 'This is how fast I think' is a good example of the meaning of the durative suffix. With the causative, it denotes a related sense: siloŋkačavemegon kxanha 'this is how fast I'm making you think' whose only differences from the preceding clause are the addition of the causative -č-, the infixed enclitic Dative -avem- 'to thou', and the change of the case of fast from Nominative to Partitive. The reason behind the case shift is that the Salanjans interpreted this like the English would I am partially making you think this fast (yes, this is an awkward statement, but it gets the point across). Earlier texts have clauses equivalent to this, but they tend to add the adverbial ending –r to kxanha, giving an adverb kxanhar, whose translation is perhaps best given as ‘fastly’.

texts:

glottalevvemoraegôm vema.

glottal-ev-vem-ora-eg^hom.

<speak(aor.) you(cl. dat.) (Contin.perf-1^st per)>

I have been speaking to you.

Horata horateqaikkâz glottallos.

horata-Ø horat-eβ-ail-k^hâz glottall-os.

<Falcon(nom.sg) fly(aor.-perf-3^rd per) Mouth(Elat.)>

The Falcon flew out of the mouth.

Fontalallaseqailkâs ¤alakantun

fontalallas-eβ-ail-k^haĵ džalakant-un-Ø

<come (aor.-perf.-3^rd per) horde(pl.-nom.)

raskalod glottalkaraueqailkâs

raskal-ōd glottalkarau-eββ-ail-k^hâs

Easternland(abl.) name(perf.-3^rd per)

samu udraðða.

samu-n-Ø udrað-ða.

Themselves(nom.) Udraþ(acc.)>

The hordes who came out of the East called themselves Udraþ.

ånsaradinzailkâs arovekarau.

ånsar-adīn-eβ-ail-k^has arove-kaśau

<move-comet(cl. nom.) (pret-perf.-3^rd) thunder (ess.)>

The comet moved like thunder.

SALANJAN

The Hordes who came out of the east called themselves the Udraþ.

They rode terrible workhorses, and they scattered our Army.

They struck with giant blades of cold steel, destroying(opt) all resistance.

Their tongues issued forth a stream of similar sounds, but became gibberish as they spoke.

Saṃdhi undissolved

fontalallasaikk^haĵĵalakantun raskalōg glottallarawaikk^has

samunudraðða; ånsarōdveββas

ånsaŋŋkajāžark^hačHâččočorpuŋqəza

šin ånsarak^weorak^has īgaruŋka.

ånsarpokaraњčjānabrorak^haš čoaščoŋqəsantl dēsumvoþa, lelīnnēlastūk^has aīgaronsazza.

Saṃdhi dissolved

fontal-allas-ail-k^hâs ĵalakant-un-b^hâs raskal-ōd glottal-karau-ail-k^hâs

samu-b^hâ{s} udrað-za; ånsar-ōd-v-eβə-k^hâs

ånsar-ŋka-jāžar-k^hâHâs čo-čorpu-n-əqə-za

šin ånsar-a-k^we-ora-k^hâs īgaru-n-ha.

ånsar-poka-ran-č-jā-nabr-ora-k^hâs čo-aščo-n-əqə-santl dēsun-vo-þa, lelīr-nēl-astū-k^hâs a-īgaru-ånsar-za.

Numbers:

1 dåz 6 xon 11 dåtozi

2 fer 7 saupel 12 fertozi

3 vak 8 naŋe 13 vattozi

4 čaš 9 lari 14 čaštozi

5 kit 10 tozi 15 kitozi

Lexicon

93 words

a-collectivising prefix

adīn-comet; used as a synonym for cloud, forcing out the original utada

(a-dī-n<*a-dī-īn)

agla-no, not; general negative particle

ånsar-move

ånsarak^we-scatter (+partitive) (ånsar-a-k^we)

ånsarpoka-strike (ånsar-poka, move lightning)

axel- 'great' (bears the same relation to g^hûl as Latin summus does to maximus)

ar-city (prefixes self to adjectives)

ar-axel-the Salanjan Empire's capital city; near present-day city of Ar-Udraðaž.

arove-thunder

aśman- heaven

aśmanha aščo- heaven's blade; lightning (the early Salanjans worshipped a Thunder

God)

aščo-blade

āščoθava-mercenary army (<a-aščoθava)

aščoθava-mercenary (<*aščoθa-ava, 'traveller of the blade')

ava-traveler

čal -the Čal, inhabitants of the rock cliffs to the west of the Rhêghîl valley; also the rock formations which they (the Čal) live near

čo-giant

čorpu-horse

ču-ha-evening star

čuha– Western; is used for the most majestic item in a given work of literature

dēsu-steel

dī-cloud

doraunu-sunlight|

|-from a Psal root *dos-, ‘light, sun’ with suffixes *-aun ‘physicality’

dosy-sun | and *-y ‘nominal’

drēīn-lit. ‘the people’ the Salanjans name for themselves

emw-prince (incorporated form ennu)

Esia-town in the foothills of the Čantai mountains, outpost of the Salanjan Kingdom; capital of a short-lived Highland Zein principality, before the new emperors extended their influence inland.

festir-celestial

fontal-go, go into

fontaŋka- come (from *fontal-ŋka)

fortriu-hello

aga–love (lost in Zēīn languages)

ger-infinitive particle

glottal-speak, mouth

glottalkarau-name, call

glottalū-mouth

grai-above (adv.)

g^hûl- 'great', adj, takes endings for noun, which appears in the Constructive.

ĵalakant-horde

ĵain-to go

ĵaiŋka-to come (/go/ +durative)

ha-star

haθa-dī-cloud of star(s); star clusters; constellation

horata-falcon

horat-fly(v)

huw-watcher

igaru-warrior (incorporated form igā)

initiko-sky

issian-ruler

jo-queen

koly-moon

kopta-midnight

kor, (pl.)-a, -Pron., I, we (also reflexive) (alternate version *ša-, which is the version that

provided the posessive infix for nouns)

korpu-hunting dog ('my hunter')

kwains-visitor

kuspi-daughter (*ku- feminine kinship affix)

k^hajan-found (establish) (in the Ablative, 'from the founding,' used to date after the founding of Ar-Axel; in the Illative, used to date before the founding of Ar-Axel)

k^hitraqa-a boar-like creature which has a speckled body

kxan-fast

lelīr-destroy

mad^ha-morning star (from mad-ha)

maz-windspirit (air-nymph)

mi-moon

midu-moonlight

mo- child

moku-sister (from mo- + -ku, feminine kinship affix)

mori-brother (from mo- + -ri, masculine kinship affix)

mu-adult

muku-mother (from mu- + ku, feminine kinship affix)

muri-father (from mu- + -ri, masculine kinship affix)

Naγal- chief Salaњan deity

nerāŋ-legs

norkē-dawn

otans-listener; listen(v)

pa- '-er' (a elides before vowels)

paga-lover

po-river

poka-lightning

pu-hunter

raskal-The lands to the east of the Rhêghîl plain, which is a continuation of the massive Steppe in the center of the continent; as an adjective, used for the least

liked/respected, and is then translated as 'Eastern'

redo-dusk

rhêghîl-the Rhêghîl river

samu-3^rd person reflexive Pron. (Latin suī, sibi, sē, sē)

sapa-100

silō-think

sīr-adv., in the past

symi-midday

sodum-princess

šalīmar-the paradise of Šaol; also its largest moon (from Ancient Šakarian ša-lī-ma-r(e),

Šalimar)

šīn-and

šonle-feral

štolaqor-Štolakor, Lord of the Dead, ruler of the planet Asalunei, the Saolic equivilant of

Venus, where the Šaolic version of Hel is located.

śona-light

tauro-voyager

tozi-10

tel, (pl.) vē-Pron., thou, you (also reflexive)

udraθa-the Udraþ, the first invaders of the plain; later Salaњan mostly uses this as a despicative, 'outlander'

upe-wanderer

utada-cloud (lost in all except Highland Zēīn)

verian-emperor

PSal Imperial Salaњan AK_arun Common Zein (CD, Common Drein)

*tjonales šonle tiunals *šoll(e)

*džid- *ĵidas/ĵīdas djid *didas

*gon gona/gōna gun *gon- 'to adorn'

*futēr futēras/fūtēras futir *futr 'place'

Vowel minimal pairs:

a :: ā k^ha "thou(arch.)" :: k^hā "swift(ly)"

e :: ē kel "(dial.) postp. Com." :: kēl "if"

i :: ī jidas "when" :: jīdas "where?"

o :: ō gona"jewel" :: gōna "adornments, jewelry"

u :: ū futēras "where" :: fūtēras "where?"

Of the above pairs, the forms jidas/jīdas and futēras/fūtēras are interesting, as they come from the Proto-Salanjan *džid 'time' and *futēr 'place' compounded with *as (the formant for the noun analog for interrogatives) and *V_root:C_finalas (the interrogative marker). The divergent form fūtēras from the expected *futēras is the result of the need to mark the difference between where and where?.

Proto-Salanjan Augmentive: *-nja. The final -a is obscured by the fact that later Salanjan dialects generalised all stems to CVCV, and added the vowel -a where the root had been CVC. Trisyllabic roots were almost non-existant, the main ones being *tsaulekə cliff (source of the name čal from the Northern Valley dialect (the čauleka or čåle, in medieval times pronounced and written as <čal>), which lost final syllables), *βaw(o)get dog (source of Vaugr, hunting hound of the Salanjan pantheon, borrowed by the Drydo-Udraþ), and *tjonales feral (Šollas, the wildmen)

PSal IS KS AK CZ

*tjonales šonle lunnis tiunals *šoll(e)

*džid- *ĵidas/ĵīdas dzíd dið *didas

*gon gona/gōna gun gun *gon- 'adorn'

*futēr futēras/fūtēras futiras futir *futr 'place'

*atje 'feline' aśe ali atī aše

*čani- 'water' čani Čanj 'the Sea' ?? ??

*ba:l- 'priest' OS bālu 'mendicant' bál 'priest' ?? ??

*-y- product of IS –y- -ui-, -iu- ?? ??

*anatja-* anaśa anala anča 'foreigner' *anča '(various)[7]'

*The word anala was used by the Ker Salanjans to denote their northern cousins, the speakers of Old Salanjan. The Imperial Salanjans used their cognate term anaśa to denote the various steppe tribes as a whole, before they learned (and came to fear) the term udraθa.

Proto-Salaњan IS AK_arun CZ KS

*tj š/ṣ ti sj l

*dj ž/ẓ di zj l

*sj š t sj š

*p p p p p

*b b b b b

*t t t t t

*d d d d d

*č č č č ts

*dž ĵ d d dz

*k k k k k

*g g g g g

*s s s s s

*f

*x

*m

*n

*ŋ

indic. S

1 -gom

2 -k^has

3 -nap

opt. S

1 -gum

2 -k^hes

3 -nep

Karun dialect:
COMITATIVE -kil (*-kel)

plurals marked with infix -ix- (verbs mark plurality with a suffixed -ix), which, containing the Proto-Salanjan vowel *i, causes the umlauts

u > y

o > ø

a > æ/e (/æ/ is usually written <e> when the symbol Æ is not used)

e > ei

i > ī

The Standard plurality markers -m, and -ŋ are used only sparingly, and the form -n is never used.

Consonants spirantise intervocalically:

Standard pad- "agentive" to pað-

St. dit "cloud" to diθ-

s>h

z>γ

p>φ

b>β

t>θ

d>ð

k>x

g>γ

Nominal

The Karun dialect kept many grammatical rules from Proto-Salanjan, while the standard of Ar-Axel changed them. These included an Ergative case system, the seperation of many case suffices from the word stem, and differing forms for the Optative.

Ergative -βa

Absolutive -Ø

Verbs

indic. S P

1 -γom -(γ)ømix

2 -xas -(x)æhix

3 -nap -næφix

opt. S P

1 -γum -γymix

2 -xis -xīhix

3 -nip -nīφix

Reconstructed alternate pronouns, with related forms attested in early Čal inscriptions of

Ker Salanjan:

Rheghil: Ker:

*ša śə 1^st sg-"I"

*xa xə 2^nd sg-"thou"

*sa sə 3^rd sg-"he/she/it"

*θa dsə 1^st du-"we two"

*la lə 2^nd du-"you two"

*qa/qå qə 3^rd pl-"they"

*pa pə 1^st pl-"we"

*ta tə 2^nd pl-"you"

Common Salanjan *ə and *a in Rheghil Salanjan both have the reflex a, while Ker usually preserves the distinction.

Ker Salanjan:

1^st pers. -eγom

2^nd pers. –xəs, -k

3^rd pers. –asp, -s

Aorist: -əγə-

Future: -əβə-

Present Continious: -əðə-

Cases:

Nom. -Ø

Gen. -θ«

Acc. -zə

Dat. -mə

Part. -hə

Transl. -əu

Iness. -rən

Elat. -los

Illat. -əs

Ades. -uš

Ess. -kr8(-əu)*

Abl. -ōd

All. -ni«

Abes. -ədl

Com. -ətl

Prolat. -sn8

Exess. -θəu

Compos. -vo

Loc. -k^we

Instr. -sn8tl

*the Essive shows a form in –kr8 in Ker, and inscriptions in Old Rhêghîl Salanjan show the addition of the Translative -au to an original -kaṣ.

Ker Salanjan [ð] was written as dz, and [dz] as ds.

�ntsər: move (written /aòntsàr/)

k�vðə: midnight (written /kòvdzà/)

pə-: agentive (ə elides before vowels)

zməu: one hundred

---

1 although a phoneme in early Old Salanjan, /g/ had, by classical times, effectively merged with /g/.

[2] the sound b is postulated from the description of the Intentional actional –(jā)nabr, where br is described as 'r made by flapping the lips greatly with speed'.

[3] the clictic forms indicate a noun's use when appended to nouns that are incorporated into a verb.

[4] -ha is used after labials, dentals, and alveolars; -xa is used in all other cases.

[5] the 2^nd indicative personal ending is frequently shortened to –ap, especially in later Salanjan; the Causative to -map.

[6] the forms in -jāstu and -stu are late assiimilations to the greater pattern of imperfective formation, as are –jεð and -εð.

[7] The Zein term *anča (Coastal ãč, Valley **anca, and Western ANKIA) refers to different peoples, the ãč mostly referring to the Drūl, the **anca mostly to the Udraþ or Dryds, and ANKIA to the Daralec.